Dynamics of conflict in participatory forest management in Benin : a framing perspective

Benin’s protected areas were created during the colonial period between 1940 and 1960. The colonial administration established them by confiscating rural land and putting it under government control without the consent of the local communities, who considered that their land had been expropriated. From the time that they were created until the early 1990s, these protected areas were managed solely by government officials. Local communities were considered as undesirable in the management of these resources and were kept away from them by force and repression. Many conflicts set the forest rangers and local communities in opposition to each other in relation to access to, and use of, the resources in the protected areas. This management system also proved to be inefficient in terms of conservation of these protected areas, where degradation increased over time.Participatory management of protected areas was enacted in Beninin 1993. After a seemingly promising start of participatory management efforts, conflicts have re-emerged in many protected areas. This makes it relevant to gain a better understanding of why and how such conflicts emerge. Three cases of conflict in participatory management of protected areas were investigated. A framing perspective was used in order to develop a better understanding of conflict in such settings. The various cases studied show that the idea that conflicts in natural resources management occur when there are disagreements and disputes regarding access to, and management of, the natural resources is only one side of the story. The thesis indicates that conflict about natural resources management are not only about bio-physical resources; symbolic resources, including social status, moral values, trust and other identity-related issues, play decisive roles as well. In this line of thought, the thesis shows that the co-construction and the dynamics of the social identities of the stakeholders involved in natural resources management tended to reinforce conflicts in the different cases. In addition, the thesis demonstrates that trust is an important variable in the participatory management of natural resources. It makes clear that trust is not a static state or a given characteristic of a relationship, but must be regarded as highly dynamic and constantly negotiated over time. The thesis also makes clear that formal institutions provide the initial framework for legitimate action and become intertwined with informal institutions that become decisive in the achievement of the objectives of the process. However, although formal and informal institutions are both important and can reinforce each other, the intertwining of formal and informal institutions may result in problems and conflict, especially when there is discontinuity and turn-over with regard to participants. A final cross-cutting conclusion is that conflicts are gradually co-constructed by stakeholders in discourse. In everyday conversation, people create realities that become a source of conflict. An important practical implication of the study is that those involved in facilitating community-based forest management should develop better concepts and strategies to ‘manage’ and facilitate inter-human processes. Framing analysis helps to identify inter-human processes and dynamics that are easily overlooked but are critically important in shaping the course and outcomes of participatory processes. Keywords: Participation, conflict, framing, interpretive approach, discourse, case-study, trust, institutions, social cohesion, social identity, protected areas, Benin.</p

Strategies d’adaptation des riziculteurs aux effets du changement climatique dans la Commune de Malanville au Benin

Le secteur agricole pourvoyeur de ressources financières et alimentaires est confronté à de nombreux problèmes dont les perturbations naturelles inhérentes au changement climatique. L’étude a analysé les manifestations du changement climatique sur la production du riz et les stratégies d’adaptation développées par les riziculteurs au Nord Bénin. Des données ont été recueillies auprès de 80 riziculteurs dans deux arrondissements de la commune de Malanville au Nord Bénin. Les analyses ont été faites au moyen des statistiques descriptives, des tests statistiques et une regression logistique qui a permis d’estimer les déterminants de l’adoption des stratégies d’adaptation des riziculteurs. Les résultats révèlent que 100% des riziculteurs remarquent les manifestations du changement climatique. Ces manifestations se traduisent par l’augmentation des précipitations/ inondations, le retard des pluies et les vents violents. En réponse à ces changements, les riziculteurs adoptent différentes stratégies dont les plus répandues sont l’utilisation des semences améliorées, la culture de contre saison et le drainage des eaux excédentaires. L’éducation formelle, le nombre d’année d’expérience dans la riziculture, la superficie exploitée, la superficie allouée à la riziculture, l’appartenance à un groupement et l’accès au crédit agricole ont un effet positif et significatif sur la décision des riziculteurs à s’adapter au changement climatique. English title: rice farmers’ adaptation strategies to climate change effects in the Municipality of Malanville in Benin Abstract The agricultural sector, which provides financial and food resources, is facing many challenges including the natural disturbances due to climate change. This paper has analyzed the manifestations of climate change on rice production and the adaptation strategies developed by rice farmers in Northern Benin. Data have been collected from 80 rice farmers in two villages of the districts of Malanville in Benin. These data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, statistical tests and regression to identify the factors influencing adaptation strategies adoption by farmers. The results show that 100% of rice farmers noticed the manifestations of climate change. These events are reflected in increased rainfall / flooding, delayed rains, strong wind blowing during the rainy season, poor distribution of rains. In response to these changes, rice farmers adopted different adaptation strategies such as the use of improved seeds, off-season cultivation, changing sowing dates, drainage of excess water and varietal adaptation. Formal education, the number of years of experience in rice production, the area farmed, the area allocated to rice production, the farmer’s organization membership, the participation in agricultural training and access to agricultural credit have positive and significant effects on the decision of rice farmers to adapt to climate change manifestations. Keywords: Climate changes, adaptation strategies, rice production, Malanville, Beni

From cohesion to conflict in participatory forest management: The case of Ouémé Supérieur and N'Dali (OSN) forests in Benin

Community-based natural resources management (CBNRM) was introduced in Benin in the early 1990s. Because of the initially positive results, the Forest Department decided to continue and scale up this participatory approach to all Benin's protected areas. Focusing on the relationships between the actors involved, this paper seeks to explain the dynamics of the participatory management process in the Ouémé Supérieur and N'Dali forests in Northern Benin. The analysis is based on data gathered from interviews with the different actors involved. The study shows that social cohesion between people involved in CBNRM, the Forest Rangers and local communities was built at the beginning of the process, but then disappeared and was followed by conflict. Stakeholders interpreted and made sense of formally declared participatory management rules (formal institutions) and gradually developed informal relationships, rules and routines (informal institutions) that facilitated the collaboration process and resulted in social cohesion. Conflicts and distrust emerged when replacement CBNRM officers did not respect the informal rules of conduct. The case shows that it is the state of informal rules and relationships that determines the success of a collaborative process rather than formally declared institutions; hence this should be recognized

Identity Dynamics and Conflict in Collaborative Processes: The Case of Participatory Management of Protected Areas in Benin

The research reported in this paper investigated the role of identity construction in the emergence and escalation of conflict in the participatory management of protected areas in Benin. The study shows that social identity salience was dynamic and played an important role in the emergence and escalation of conflict in the studied cases. Conflicts emerged when identities became salient as a result of the stakeholders’ framing of contextual factors as a threat to their identity. The conflicts escalated when decisions and actions undertaken in the management process were framed as top-down and as posing a threat to the identities of the stakeholders. We conclude that, although the government in the management of the protected areas introduced participation, unilateral decisions taken about the way the conflicts should be managed caused disappointment and distrust, and thus led to a greater distance between the parties involved and to conflict escalation

The Discursive Construction of Confl ict in Participatory Forest Management: The Case of the Agoua Forest Restoration in Benin

The Agoua Forest in Benin was declared a protected area in 1953 and subsequently managed by means of a coercion system, which, however, did not prevent its deforestation. In 2002, a participatory management process was designed to restore this forest. Although the project managers and local communities agreed to a plan at the beginning of the process, the plan was not implemented because conflict arose in the course of the process. In this paper, an interactional framing approach was used to analyse the emergence of this conflict, which ended in an impasse. This study showed that the conflict was constructed and evolved mainly in stakeholders' discourses, even without changes in actual forest management and use. Moreover, it became clear that stakeholders constructed different frames in different conversation contexts: stakeholders, who share a set of perceptions, norms, and expectations as constructed and expressed in their talks (we-groups), constructed stereotypes and stigmas, blaming the other party and presenting themselves as innocent victims. In conversations involving all stakeholders, people did not reveal their real thoughts, either about each other or about the proposals for conflict resolution. This study shows the relevance and agency of discourse in conflict, and the importance of the interactional framing approach in understanding participatory management, and conflict dynamics. It reveals how by means of discourses, farmers in the Agoua Forest succeeded in handling the conflict, with the effect that little has been done in the project's decision to implement the pla

From cohesion to conflict in participatory forest management: The case of Ouémé Supérieur and N'Dali (OSN) forests in Benin

Community-based natural resources management (CBNRM) was introduced in Benin in the early 1990s. Because of the initially positive results, the Forest Department decided to continue and scale up this participatory approach to all Benin's protected areas. Focusing on the relationships between the actors involved, this paper seeks to explain the dynamics of the participatory management process in the Ouémé Supérieur and N'Dali forests in Northern Benin. The analysis is based on data gathered from interviews with the different actors involved. The study shows that social cohesion between people involved in CBNRM, the Forest Rangers and local communities was built at the beginning of the process, but then disappeared and was followed by conflict. Stakeholders interpreted and made sense of formally declared participatory management rules (formal institutions) and gradually developed informal relationships, rules and routines (informal institutions) that facilitated the collaboration process and resulted in social cohesion. Conflicts and distrust emerged when replacement CBNRM officers did not respect the informal rules of conduct. The case shows that it is the state of informal rules and relationships that determines the success of a collaborative process rather than formally declared institutions; hence this should be recognized

Trust and hidden conflict in participatory natural resources management: The case of the Pendjari national park (PNP) in Benin

This paper investigated how and why the issue of trust building between the park direction and the local communities gave way to a hidden conflict in the participatory management of the Pendjari national park (PNP) in Benin, and how it was managed. The findings revealed that calculus-based trust was built at the beginning of the process and enabled an improved relationship and collaboration between the park direction and local communities, and a subsequent raise of wildlife in the park. However, dysfunctional use of the trust built led to the emergence of distrust, which evolved into conflict. This conflict was hidden by the illusion of peaceful relationships between the stakeholders as pursued in common meetings. It was noticeable only through accusations on each other, including the shift of responsibility for solving the conflict when discussing the management separately with the different stakeholders. We conclude that (dis)trust should not be looked as a static/cognitive state, but as a dynamic frame that may be strategically used in interaction